| Civil Defense Now! Standards For Fallout Shelters (TR-87
By Richard A. Fleetwood - May 2001
An essential component of the National Fallout Shelter Program is the
promulgation of guidelines for the construction of protected facilities in
both the public and private sectors. Architects, engineers, builders, building
officials, and all others in the construction industry need criteria and
standards to guide their individual efforts toward meeting the national goal
of providing protection from fallout radiation for everyone. The standards
in this publication represent the best and most current guidelines for public
fallout shelters and fallout shelters in hospitals. Presented in a format
which conforms to the style and language common for building codes, the fallout
shelter standards are suitable for adoption by building departments in local
governments, and for use by organizations and agencies which may be involved
in emergency preparedness planning.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency extends its appreciation to the National
Conference of States on Building Codes and Standards for assistance in preparing
these standards in a style and form that offer clarity of concepts for the
intended objectives.
Federal Emergency Management Agency
The National Conference of States on Building Codes and Standards (NCSBCS)
has extended its assistance in the preparation of this document, not only
because of its deep commitment to supporting programs of national need, but
also because its membership and cooperating organizations can benefit from
the guidelines which are intended to be compatible with normal practices
in the building industry.
Among its objectives, NCSBCS seeks to bring about consistency of building
standards--and when appropriate, uniformity of their application. NCSBCS
therefore welcomes opportunities such as the one represented in this document
to render assistance in order to achieve a consistency and useful format
for these guidelines for fallout shelters.
National Conference of States on
Building Codes and Standards
CONTENTS
|
Page |
| Foreword |
2 |
| The Federal Emergency Management Agency |
3 |
| Code Organizations |
4 |
| Introduction |
6 |
| Standard for Public Fallout Shelters |
8 |
| Standard for Fallout Shelters in Hospitals |
13 |
| Commentary |
20 |
| References |
28 |
FOREWORD
Presented herein are standards relating to the design and construction of
public fallout shelters and fallout shelters in hospitals. Explanations and
background discussions relating to various provisions contained in the standards
are included.
These standards are intended to serve as guides for the design and construction
of facilities which provide protection from the fallout radiation effects
of nuclear explosions. The standards may be applied to new or existing facilities
in both the public and private sectors. If the standards are to be a part
of the requirements for buildings, then they must be adopted as a part of
the local or State building codes.
A standard establishes criteria to measure, test, compare, or judge
characteristics of building design and construction, such as capacity, quantity,
context, extent, value, quality, durability, and capability.
The purpose of a building code is to safeguard the life, health, and general
welfare of all occupants of a building and those near the building. The term
building code means collectively all laws regulating the design
and construction of a building, including all auxiliary components such as
electrical wiring, mechanical equipment, and plumbing.
A building code contains a number of standards which cover the various materials,
systems, assemblies, and design procedures that are allowed. Generally, a
standard is included in a building code either as a part of its text or by
reference, and thereby becomes a part of the code.
A worthy objective is that these standards for fallout shelters become part
of the nationally recognized model building codes, as well as local and
State-adopted building codes. To that purpose, the standards are presented
in a format that will permit the model code organizations and local and State
governments to include them in their codes through adoption by reference.
The provisions of these standards address only those aspects of building
design and construction which are unique to providing habitable space protected
from the fallout radiation effects of nuclear weapons. Design and construction
aspects of a conventional nature must comply with the provisions of local
or State-adopted building codes.
The standards presented herein are minimum and do not preclude the designer
from exceeding the requirements, except as may cause noncompliance with other
requirements for the space which may be prescribed in other applicable codes.
THE FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is charged to provide for
the protection of the civilian population and industry of the Nation. Its
primary mission is safeguarding the Nation's resources of life, property,
and industry from enemy attack. In addition, the Agency assists with preparedness
and recovery programs necessitated by natural hazards which also create potential
risks to the population, industry, and general economy of the Nation.
The greatest potential risk that the country faces today is from the serious
and widespread harm which nuclear weapons are capable of producing. Although
the blast and fire effects from these weapons of modern warfare are more
severe and potentially harmful than weapons heretofore known or used, the
effects of nuclear radiation are even more extensive and more hazardous.
Fallout radiation respects no boundaries and is dangerous to all living things.
The national civil defense program emphasizes protection from fallout radiation.
Fallout shelters are the principal elements of the Nation's protective shield,
and FEMA and predecessor agencies have worked to provide such protection
for as many people as possible. The degree of fallout protection recommended
by FEMA is established from available information about the biological effects
of nuclear radiation, estimates of the radiation environment which would
result from nuclear attack upon the Nation, and correlations of these data
with the types and functions of the populations to be protected.
It is because these parameters are different that fallout shelter standards
are not the same for every situation. Two standards are presented in this
booklet--one for public fallout shelters, another for fallout shelters in
hospitals. There are additional standards for other situations--for example,
standards for Emergency Operating Centers from which governmental activities
are coordinated during emergency periods, and for industrial facilities which
may involve essential services.
Fallout shelter programs conducted by FEMA have several components. Among
these are research aimed at improving the characterization of the nuclear
hazard and its effects, development of standards and design concepts for
fallout shelters, training and education of design professionals so they
may more effectively incorporate fallout protection in buildings, educating
the general public regarding radiation hazards and protection concepts so
they may be better prepared to respond effectively during and after nuclear
attack, and assistance to local governmental units in preparedness planning
and response activities.
The fallout shelter standards presented in this booklet are just one
component--albeit an important one--among the several components of the National
Fallout Shelter Program.
CODE ORGANIZATIONS
Model code organizations in the United States have evolved over the past
years as a means for local building officials and others in the industry
to share and exchange construction information that may have common applications.
The development and writing of codes for regulating building construction
is a complex, time-consuming task encompassing numerous specialties and requiring
a broad spectrum of expertise. Many building department officials have found
it preferable to combine their knowledge and efforts in preparing building
codes rather than each proceeding alone. Model building codes are a product
of this combined work. These codes then may be recommended for adoption in
local communities, counties, and States.
Another benefit that has been realized from the combined work of code
organization members is a consistency of building codes among governmental
jurisdictions which regulate construction. The construction trades, product
manufacturers, and designers all benefit from this consistency--through improved
efficiencies, simplified procedures, fewer variations in standards to be
met, and less ambiguous regulations. Designers of buildings need only to
reflect upon the complexities and inconveniences of meeting a different set
of construction codes in every community to realize just how important a
uniform code really is in their work.
Several code organizations have been established over the past years. Four
organizations have promulgated model building codes that are widely used--namely,
Building Officials and Code Administrators, International (BOCA), which publishes
the Basic Building Code; International
Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), which publishes the
Uniform Building Code; Southern Building
Code Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI), which publishes the
Standard Building Code; and the American
Insurance Association (AlA), which publishes the
National Building Code. The first three
named are controlled by member representatives of local and State governments
who review and adopt provisions in their respective codes through democratic
processes. Memberships in the model code organizations include local building
officials and representatives of construction organizations, trade organizations,
product manufacturers, and design organizations. Working collectively, they
develop codes for the range of building types which local building departments
regulate.
Other code organizations offer forums for exchange and resolution of common
problems in the regulation of building construction and training for building
officials and others in the industry. The National Conference of States on
Building Codes and Standards (NCSBCS) and the Council of American Building
Officials (CABO) provide coordinated review of recommended codes and standards,
development of new or revised codes when the need arises, and cooperative
understandings among independent regulatory jurisdictions. The National Academy
of Code Administrators (NACA) provides training and education programs covering
issues common to the code organizations.
All of the code organizations seek to advance the skills and knowledge of
their memberships. Training programs--both administrative and technical--and
publications, newsletters, and conferences are among their activities.
While no one of these activities is more important than the others to their
memberships, the most valuable service code organizations render to the building
industry is the codification of construction standards. This codification,
which provides consistency of codes as well as common design criteria across
governmental boundaries, is essential to the industry.
Standards developed by any organization are of little value unless they are
known and used by the construction industry. Code organizations have the
necessary communications networks to bring about the dissemination of appropriate
building standards. Moreover, the review and adoption procedures followed
by the code organizations give added assurance that a standard, when included
in a code, is reasonable, workable and enforceable.
Adoption of an earlier version of a standard for public fallout shelters
by three of the national model code organizations, and inclusion of that
standard in their separate codes illustrate the services which these
organizations offer to the building industry and the general public of the
United States. As well, the national interest has been served by their actions.
The model code organizations now have an opportunity to review, adopt, and
disseminate these standards for public fallout shelters and fallout shelters
in hospitals.
INTRODUCTION
Building codes have regulatory functions, but they also serve other purposes.
Regulatory power, of course, is employed to safeguard the public health,
safety, and welfare. Building codes also ensure that the intended activities
within a building or space are possible, and they are an information resource
from which design criteria are obtained.
Standards for various construction situations are included in building codes,
either by reference or within the written text of the codes. These standards
often are prepared by qualified persons or groups that may not be members
of code organizations. The standards become a part of a building code only
after review and adoption by the separate code organizations. In this process,
a particular standard may be included in a code either in whole or only in
part. The standards for fallout shelters presented in this booklet are intended
for use in this way.
The intended purposes of this booklet are to identify essential elements
of functional fallout shelters, to establish minimum standards for
these essential elements, to state these standards in language and style
common to building codes, and to provide sufficient explanation so that users
of the standards may apply them with a reasonable degree of competency and
certainty that the intended functions are possible or are accommodated. Because
these fallout shelter standards also have multiple purposes, the booklet
includes more information than normally would appear in a conventional standard.
However, the booklet has been partitioned so that, the standards appear
separately for easy inclusion in local, State, or national model building
codes.
Two standards are presented in this booklet--one for public fallout shelters,
and one for fallout shelters in hospitals. These are defined later. The two
standards are somewhat different, even though the nuclear hazard and effects
are much the same for both situations. Different standards are established,
because each type of facility has a different functional purpose and each
facility services a different type of occupancy. The standard for fallout
shelters in hospitals is the more extensive and rigorous--a reflection of
the importance of such facilities, especially during emergencies. These fallout
shelter standards establish objectives to be met in the design of fallout
shelters in new or existing buildings. They provide minimum criteria. In
the Commentary, these minimum criteria are assigned priorities according
to their importance in providing a habitable living environment protected
from the fallout radiation effects of nuclear weapons. If all of the desired
features of a fallout shelter cannot be provided in the original construction,
then guidance is furnished regarding those aspects of fallout shelters which
are more important--for example, radiation shielding.
These standards are not intended to establish expensive requirements for
shielding or habitability of fallout shelters that may not be justified or
required by the normal use of the building. Rather, encouragement is given
to making optimum use of existing or normally required construction and systems
to achieve the wanted fallout shelter, making only minor adjustments in space
layouts, construction materials, and building systems as may be needed.
To some extent, every building provides a natural shield against fallout
radiation, which is the nuclear effect of primary concern in fallout shelters.
Often, through an awareness of fallout shelter requirements, building designers
can enhance the inherent shielding characteristics of a space simply in the
choices made during design, a process which normally affords several
alternatives.
Since these standards are set forth as minimums, owners and designers are
encouraged to exceed them when it is feasible to do so within financial and
technical constraints. This applies to the radiation shielding level as well
as to the shelter systems. The standards have been set at the lowest acceptable
level commensurate with the nature of the hazard and its chance of occurrence.
This philosophy recognizes that fallout shelters are, in a sense, insurance
against an unpredictable risk, and that the need for fallout shelters will
be essential to the Nation's population if nuclear attack should ever occur.
STANDARD FOR PUBLIC FALLOUT SHELTERS
Purpose
Section 1.0. The purpose of this standard is
to establish minimum criteria for application to the design, construction,
or designation of a space in a building or other facility as a fallout shelter.
Scope
Section 2.0. The scope of this standard extends
to buildings, spaces, or other facilities designated for use as public fallout
shelters.
Section 2.1. The standard establishes technical,
architectural, and environmental criteria for public fallout shelters.
General
Section 3.0. The standard furnishes minimum
criteria which provide for the protection of occupants from nuclear fallout
radiation in spaces whose habitability and environmental characteristics
are governed by the prevailing emergency situation and the essential lifesaving
purpose of the fallout shelter. The criteria to be met typically are different
from criteria ordinarily required for buildings and spaces having an everyday
use.
Section 3.1. The standard indicates objectives
to be met in the design and designation of fallout shelters in new and existing
buildings. If all of the objectives cannot be met, then primary consideration
shall be given to providing radiation shielding. In such instances, plans
shall be developed to include the other fallout shelter features at a later
time.
Section 3.2. This standard for public fallout
shelters is a minimum standard. Nothing contained herein shall be construed
to preclude exceeding this standard for any fallout shelter, except as may
cause noncompliance with other requirements for the shelter space which may
be prescribed in the local building codes.
Definitions
Section 4.0. The following definitions shall apply to all portions of this
standard.
FALLOUT SHELTER is any room, structure, or space
designated as such and providing its occupants with protection at a minimum
protection factor (PF) of 40 from fallout radiation resulting from a nuclear
explosion.
PUBLIC FALLOUT SHELTER is any fallout shelter which
is intended for use by or is accessible to the general public. Fallout shelters
which are a part of a private residence and are intended for private use
are not included.
SINGLE-PURPOSE FALLOUT SHELTER is a fallout shelter
having no use or occupancy except as a fallout shelter.
DUAL-USE FALLOUT SHELTER is a fallout shelter having
a normal, routine use and occupancy as well as an emergency use as a fallout
shelter.
PROTECTION FACTOR, sometimes abbreviated as PF,
is a numerical value which expresses the relation between the amount of fallout
radiation that would be received in a protected location and the amount that
would be received if unprotected in the same location.
EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE is an empirical index which
combines in a single number the effects of temperature, humidity, and air
movement on the sensation of warmth and cold felt by the human body.
UNIT OF EGRESS WIDTH is 22 in.
Occupancy
Section 5.0. General. Nothing in this standard
shall be construed as preventing the dual use or multiple use of normal occupancy
space as fallout shelter space, providing the minimum requirements for each
are met.
Section 5.1. Mixed Occupancy. The occupancy
classification shall be determined by the normal use of a building or space.
When a normal-use space is designed to have an emergency use as a fallout
shelter in addition to the normal use, the most restrictive requirements
for all such uses shall be met.
Section 5.2. Occupancy Separation. No occupancy
separation is required between that portion of the space designed as a public
fallout shelter and the remainder of the building. A plan indicating the
fallout shelter space and its boundaries shall be furnished as a means of
identifying the fallout shelter.
Section 5.3. Space. Space allowances for use
as a fallout shelter shall be as follows.
(a) Floor Area. A minimum of 10 sq. ft. of net floor area shall be provided
per shelter occupant. Partitions, columns, areas occupied by moveable furniture
or other materials within the fallout shelter space, and any areas within
the fallout shelter space used for storage of shelter supplies may be included
in net area.
(b) Head Room. A minimum head room of 6.5 ft. shall be provided.
(c) Volume. A minimum of 65 cu. ft. of net volume shall be provided per shelter
occupant. Net volume shall be determined using the net area calculated for
the space.
Protection
Section 6.0. The minimum level of protection
for public fallout shelters is PF 40. Protection factors shall be calculated
using methods approved by the Federal Emergency Management Agency based upon
publication TR-20 (Volume 1), Shelter Design
and Analysis--Fallout Radiation Shielding, June 1976 edition.
Ventilation and Temperature
Section 7.0. Ventilation of the fallout shelter
space shall comply with the standards of Appendix C, TR-20 (Volume 3),
Shelter Environmental Support Systems,
May 1978 edition, available from the Federal Emergency Management Agency.
Section 7.1. Fresh Air. A minimum of 3 cu. ft.
of fresh air per minute per fallout shelter occupant shall be provided to
prevent oxygen depletion and carbon dioxide buildup in the fallout shelter.
Section 7.2. Effective Temperature. The fallout
shelter shall have a ventilation rate sufficient to maintain a daily average
effective temperature of not more than 82°F (28°C) with at least
a 90-percent reliability of not exceeding that value during the year. Effective
temperatures shall be determined using procedures contained in the
Handbook of Fundamentals, 1977 edition,
prepared by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE). Zones of equal ventilation rates in cu. ft. of
air per minute which meet the requirements of this section are shown in Figure
1.
Section 7.3. Ventilation Systems. Ventilation
systems for public fallout shelters shall be designed to provide the ventilation
rates required by Section 7.2. during periods when electric power may not
be available from public service utilities. Emergency electrical generators
or positive natural ventilation flow for fallout shelters may be used to
meet this requirement.
Section 7.4. Temperature. A temperature of not
less than 50°F (10°C) shall be maintained in the fallout shelter
during the occupancy period.
Section 7.5. Air Intake. Ventilation systems
shall be designed so that the outside air intake opening is positioned not
less than 2-ft. above any surface on which radioactive fallout could be
deposited. The air intake opening shall be hooded or positioned to prevent
deposits of radioactive fallout on the intake face.
Section 7.6. Filters. Special filters are not
required for ventilation systems for public fallout shelters. No filters
are required for fallout shelter ventilation equipment if the face velocity
at the outside air intake is less than 150 ft. per minute.
Lighting
Section 8.0. No special lighting is required
for fallout shelters which receive natural light. Spaces without windows,
above or below ground, shall be provided with a minimum lighting level of
2 footcandles at the floor. Normal lighting fixtures may be used for this
purpose if they are powered by an emergency generator, or battery-operated
lights may be used.
Structural
Section 9.0. Structural design of the fallout
shelter shall comply with the local building codes. No special structural
arrangements are required for public fallout shelters.
Section 9.1. Minimum Design Loads.
(a) Minimum Design Loads for Dual-Use Fallout Shelters. The design live load
required for normal use shall apply for dual-use fallout shelters.
(b) Minimum Design Loads for Single-Purpose Fallout Shelters. The minimum
design live load for floors in single-purpose fallout shelters shall be 40
lb. per sq. ft. The minimum design live load for roofs of single-purpose
fallout shelters shall comply with the requirements of the local building
codes.
Access and Egress
Section 10.0. Public fallout shelters shall
have no fewer than two widely separated means of access and egress leading
to other spaces of the building or directly to the outdoors.
Section 10.1. Means of access and egress for
dual-purpose fallout shelters shall meet the requirements prescribed by the
local building codes for normal, routine use of the space.
Section 10.2. Means of access and egress for
single-purpose fallout shelters shall aggregate at least one unit of egress
width for every 200 fallout shelter occupants. In no case shall a single
opening be less than 24-in, wide.
Section 10.3. Emergency-type hatchways may be
used as a means of access and egress, provided that at least one means of
access and egress for the fallout shelter is a standard opening conforming
to the requirements of the local building codes. Hatchways, if used, shall
be a minimum size of 24-in. x 36-in.
Fire Resistance
Section 11.0. Fallout shelters shall meet
fire-safety requirements as indicated below.
(a) Dual-purpose fallout shelters shall comply with requirements applicable
for normal occupancy of the space.
(b) Single-purpose fallout shelters shall provide a flame-spread rating for
interior surfaces not exceeding 200 on the flame spread scale and 450 or
less on the smoke test scale when tested in accordance with ASTM E-84.
Hazards
Section 12.0. Hazardous utility lines, such
as steam, gas, and oil lines, shall not be located in or near the fallout
shelter unless provision is made to control such lines by valving or other
approved means which permits shut-off of flow through the fallout shelter.
Valving or other controls shall be readily accessible from the fallout shelter
and shall conform with the local mechanical and gas codes.
Sanitation
Section 13.0. Toilets, either flush-type operating
from the normal water supply system, or chemical or other types, shall be
provided on the basis of one toilet per 50 fallout shelter occupants. Toilets
may be outside the fallout shelter in other portions of the building provided
that they may be reached by occupants of the fallout shelter without exposure
to direct fallout radiation as defined in TR-20 (Volume 1),
Shelter Design and Analysis--Fallout Radiation
Shielding, June 1976 edition, available from the Federal Emergency
Management Agency. Austere provisions, such as empty water containers, for
disposal of waste may be considered as fulfilling this requirement.
Drinking Water
Section 14.0. A minimum of 3.5 gallons of potable
water shall be available for each fallout shelter occupant. If it cannot
reasonably be assumed that the public water supply system will be operational
at all times when the fallout shelter may be occupied, then other means shall
be provided for meeting this requirement. Storage tanks, trapped potable
water in building lines, or auxiliary water wells at or near the premises
may be used to fulfill this requirement.
Supplies and Storage
Section 15.0. Consideration shall be given to
fallout shelter supplies and their storage, but provision of such supplies
is not required. Supplies and other storage considerations for public fallout
shelters are discussed in publication CPG 1-19,
Guidance for Development of An Emergency Fallout
Shelter Stocking Plan, July 1978, available from the Federal Emergency
Management Agency.
Section 15.1. Radiation-measuring instruments,
which may be furnished by the Federal Government for fallout shelters, shall
be accommodated in secure storage space within the fallout shelter.
Figure 1
Zones of Equal Ventilation Rates (CFM per person)
STANDARD FOR FALLOUT SHELTERS IN HOSPITALS
Purpose
Section 1.0. The purpose of this standard is
to establish minimum criteria for fallout shelters in hospitals. Fallout
shelters designed in compliance with this standard should be capable of
functioning in a radioactive fallout environment as operating facilities
furnishing austere medical care for in-patients, and providing emergency
treatment as required.
Scope
Section 2.0. The scope of this standard extends
to spaces for patients, spaces for a minimum level of nursing care, emergency
treatment spaces, spaces for medical isolation, and other facilities designated
for use as fallout shelters in hospitals. Section 2.1. This standard establishes
technical, architectural, and environ mental criteria for fallout shelters
in hospitals.
General
Section 3.0. The standard furnishes criteria
which provide for the protection of medical patients and medical staff from
nuclear fallout radiation in spaces for which habitability and environmental
characteristics are governed by the prevailing emergency situation and the
essential lifesaving purpose of the fallout shelter. The criteria to be met
typically are different from criteria ordinarily imposed upon spaces and
facilities in hospitals having an everyday use.
Section 3.1. The standard indicates objectives
to be met in the design and designation of fallout shelters in new and existing
hospitals.
Section 3.2. The standard for fallout shelters
in hospitals is a minimum standard. Nothing contained herein shall be construed
to preclude exceeding this standard for any fallout shelter in a hospital,
except as may cause noncompliance with other requirements for hospitals when
other uses of the space are involved besides use as a fallout shelter.
Definitions
Section 4.0. The following definitions shall
apply to all portions of this
FALLOUT SHELTER is any room, structure, or space
designated as such and providing its occupants with protection at a minimum
protection factor (PF) of 40 from fallout radiation resulting from a nuclear
explosion.
HOSPITAL FALLOUT SHELTER is any hospital area which
is designated as such for patients and medical staff, including spaces where
hospital services and emergency surgery may be performed.
PUBLIC FALLOUT SHELTER is any fallout shelter which
is intended for use by or is accessible to the general public, including
use by nonpatient-care employees and hospital visitors. Fallout shelters
which are a part of a private residence and are intended for private use
are not included.
PROTECTION FACTOR, sometimes abbreviated as PF,
is a numerical value which expresses the relation between the amount of fallout
radiation that would be received in a protected location and the amount that
would be received if unprotected in the same location.
EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE is an empirical index which
combines in a single number the effects of temperature, humidity, and air
movement on the sensation of warmth and cold felt by the human body.
CONTROL CENTER is a command post or operations
headquarters within the hospital fallout shelter for use by the hospital
administrator and his staff during an emergency.
UNIT OF EGRESS WIDTH is 22 in.
Occupancy
Section 5.0. General. Nothing in this standard
shall be construed as preventing the dual use or multiple use of normal occupancy
space as fallout shelter space, providing the minimum requirements for each
are met.
Section 5.1. Mixed Occupancy. The occupancy
classification shall be determined by the normal use of a building or space.
When a normal-use space is designed to have an emergency use as a fallout
shelter in addition to the normal use, the most restrictive requirements
for all such uses shall be met.
Section 5.2. Occupancy Separation. No occupancy
separation is required between that portion of the space designated as a
fallout shelter and the remainder of the building, except as prescribed in
Section 8.2. A plan indicating the fallout shelter space and its boundaries
shall be furnished as a means of identifying the fallout shelter.
Hospital Fallout Shelters
Section 6.0. Hospital fallout shelters shall
be designed in conformance with the requirements furnished hereafter.
Public Fallout Shelters
Section 7.0. Public fallout shelters in hospitals
shall be in accordance with the technical standard for public fallout shelters
furnished in this booklet. (Note: TR-87,
Standards for Fallout Shelters, should
be referenced if this standard for fallout shelters in hospitals is used
separately.) Definitions Section 4.0. standard.
Hospital Fallout Shelter Space
Section 8.0. General. Floor areas and volume
allowances for space used as a hospital fallout shelter shall be provided
as follows.
Section 8.1. Patient Areas. A minimum of 35
sq. ft. of net floor area, based upon nominal bed capacity, shall be provided
per patient for ward and treatment rooms reserved exclusively for patient
use, as contrasted with staff or public use.
Section 8.2. Patient-Care Staff Areas. A minimum
of 15 sq. ft. of net floor area per staff member engaged in patient care
shall be provided for staff quarters. Staff space shall be separated from
public fallout shelter space by partitioning or other physical barriers.
Section 8.3. Height of Space. provided in hospital
fallout shelters. A minimum head room of 6.5 ft. shall be provided in hospital
fallout shelters.
Protection
Section 9.0. The minimum level of protection
for hospital fallout shelters is PF 100. Protection factors shall be calculated
using methods approved by the Federal Emergency Management Agency based upon
publication TR-20 (Volume 1), Shelter Design
and Analysis--Fallout Radiation Shielding, June 1976 edition. In
calculating protection factors, the radiation dose contribution to the shelter
occupants coming from entranceways, ventilation ducts, and other openings
in the shelter's barriers shall be considered. The protection factor for
a space shall be the least protected location in the space.
Ventilation and Temperature
Section 10.0. Ventilation. Ventilation of a
hospital fallout shelter shallcomply with the standards contained in TR-20
(Volume 3), Shelter Environmental Support
Systems, May 1978 edition, available from the Federal Emergency Management
Agency. Section 10.1. Fresh Air. A minimum of 7 cu. ft. of fresh air per
minute per shelter occupant shall be supplied to the hospital fallout shelter
space.
Section 10.2. Effective Temperature. The hospital
fallout shelter space shall have a ventilation rate sufficient to maintain
a daily average effective temperature of not more than 70°F (21°C)
with at least a 90-percent reliability of not exceeding that value during
the year. Effective temperature shall be determined using procedures contained
in the Handbook of Fundamentals, 1977
edition, prepared by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE). Section 10.3. Temperature. A
temperature in the hospital fallout shelter spaceof not less than 65°F
(18°C) shall be maintained during its occupancy period.
Section 10.4. Emergency Power. Ventilation systems
for hospital fallout shelters shall be designed to provide the required
ventilation rates during periods when electric power may not be available
from public service utilities. To meet this requirement, auxiliary electric
generators shall be used to operate the ventilation systems in hospital fallout
shelters.
Section 10.5. Air Intake. Ventilation systems
shall be designed so that the outside air intake opening is positioned not
less than 2-ft. above any surface on which radioactive fallout could be
deposited. The air intake opening shall be hooded or positioned to prevent
deposits of radioactive fallout on the intake face.
Section 10.6. Filters. Special filters are not
required for ventilation systems in hospital fallout shelters, other than
those used in normal hospital operation. No filters are required for hospital
fallout shelter ventilation equipment if the face velocity at the outside
air intake is less than 150 ft. per minute.
Section 10.7. Ducts. Ducts for the ventilation
systems in hospital fallout shelters shall permit cut-off of ventilation
air to unnecessary hospital spaces during an emergency period.
Section 10.8. Recirculated Air. Air shall not
be recirculated from contiguous wards, decontamination rooms, treatment rooms,
toilets, chemical pits, or other areas which could contaminate the air supply
into the hospital fallout shelter space.
Structural
Section 11.0. Structural design of the hospital
fallout, shelter shall comply with the local building codes. No special
structural arrangements are required for hospital fallout shelters.
Section 11.1. The design live loads required
for normal hospital use shall apply for hospital fallout shelters.
Access and Egress
Section 12.0. Hospital fallout shelters shall
have no fewer than two widely separated means of access and egress leading
to other spaces of the building or directly to the outdoors.
Section 12.1. Means of access and egress shall
aggregate at least one unit of egress width for every 50 fallout shelter
occupants. One or more means of access and egress to the hospital fallout
shelter space shall be at least 40-in. wide to permit passage of hospital
beds. In no case shall a single opening be less than 24-in, wide.
Section 12.2. Passageways, corridors, and aisles
in patient-care and other emergency use areas of the hospital fallout shelter
shall have a minimum width of 6 ft.
Fire Resistance
Section 13.0. Hospital fallout shelters shall
meet fire-safety requirements applicable to normal occupancy of the space.
Lighting
Section 14.0. General. Lighting shall be provided
in the hospital fallout shelter space with minimum illumination levels as
prescribed below.
Section 14.1. Treatment Rooms. A minimum lighting
level of 100 foot-candles shall be provided at treatment tables.
Section 14.2. Patient Areas. A minimum lighting
level of 25 footcandles at desk height shall be provided.
Section 14.3. Sleeping Areas. A minimum lighting
level of 2 footcandles at the floor shall be provided.
Section 14.4. Emergency Lighting. Lighting in
hospital fallout shelter areas shall be connected to emergency power to maintain
the illumination levels prescribed in Sections 14.1., 14,2., and 14.3. during
periods when the normal power supply may be out.
Section 14.5. Battery-Operated Lights.
Trickle-charged, battery-operated emergency lights shall be provided in
corridors, hospital operating rooms, and essential work areas for use in
event of complete power failure.
Emergency Electric Generator
Section 15.0. General. In the normal operation
of a functional hospital, standby emergency power is necessary to provide
continuous service to critical areas with or without fallout protection.
Hospitals therefore normally are equipped with emergency electric generators
which can be used during radioactive fallout conditions.
Section 15.1. Facilities and Systems Served.
Emergency electric power shall be made available to operate the following
facilities and systems, as a minimum, in the hospital fallout shelter during
emergency conditions.
(a) Fallout shelter ventilation system.
(b) Fallout shelter lighting.
(c) Emergency water supply pumps.
(d) Emergency sewage ejection.
(e) Medical and surgical treatment areas.
(f) Boiler feed water pump.
(g) Emergency refrigeration in the hospital fallout shelter area.
(h) Emergency air-conditioning in the hospital fallout shelter area.
Section 15.2. Disconnects and Switching.
Disconnecting devices and switching gear shall be provided to direct the
emergency supply of power to essential equipment and systems in the hospital
during emergency periods.
Section 15.3. Radiation Shielding of Equipment
Spaces. Spaces containing the emergency electric generator, controls, and
distribution panels shall be provided with radiation shielding of a minimum
protection of PF 40. Access to the emergency generator, control room, and
distribution panels shall be shielded with the same minimum protection level
of PF 40.
Section 15.4. Power Outlets. Planning layouts
of the hospital fallout shelter shall be furnished indicating electric power
requirements to operate necessary medical equipment during emergency periods,
and emergency power outlets shall be located in the hospital fallout shelter
area as may be necessary to operate the equipment.
Section 15.5. Venting. Emergency engine-generator
sets shall have separate vents and shall be heat-isolated from areas to be
used by fallout shelter occupants.
Section 15.6. Fuel Storage. Emergency
engine-generator sets shall include a storage tank having a minimum fuel
supply capacity sufficient for at least 2 weeks of continuous operation.
Water Supply
Section 16.0. Potable Water. A minimum of 5
gallons of potable water for each patient and 1/2 gallon per person for
patient-care staff shall be provided for daily consumption and use in the
hospital fallout shelter during a minimum confinement period of 2 weeks.
Water supply may be from storage tanks, wells, or individual containers placed
in or near the fallout shelter space. The minimum requirements established
herein are for all purposes, including drinking, cooking, and sanitary purposes.
Section 16.1. Supply Lines and Outlets. Supply
lines from the emergency water storage tanks or well to the hospital fallout
shelter space shall be provided, unless individual containers are used. Water
supply outlets shall be provided in the food preparation, medical treatment,
decontamination, isolation, emergency operating, and other hospital service
areas which may require an immediate water supply during emergency periods.
Section 16.2. Treatment. Hypochlorinator equipment
and an adequate supply of high-test calcium hypochlorite shall be provided
for treatment of nonpotable water which may be drawn from emergency sources.
Section 16.3. Installation. Installation of
the emergency water supply system and associated equipment shall conform
to the local plumbing code.
Section 16.4. Fire Protection. When possible,
standpipe systems shall be cross-connected to emergency water sources so
that water will be available to upper stories for fire fighting during periods
of emergency occupancy of the hospital fallout shelter. Cross-connected standpipe
systems shall provide protection from contamination of potable water in
accordance with local health department standards or the local plumbing code.
Sanitation
Section 17.0. General. Provision shall be made
for the collection and disposal of garbage, trash, and human waste in such
a way as to preclude the creation of unsanitary conditions or offensive odors.
Section 17.1. Fixtures. Toilets and lavatories
shall be made available on the basis of one toilet and one lavatory per 35
hospital staff and patients in the hospital fallout shelter space. When emergency
water supply permits, regular flush-type toilets and standard lavatories
shall be provided. Chemical toilets shall be provided as a supplement to
regular toilets, or in lieu thereof, in case the normal water supply system
becomes inoperative.
Decontamination
Section 18.0. General. A separate, enclosed
decontamination space shall be provided at or near the entrance to the hospital
fallout shelter space.
Section 18.1. Facilities. The decontamination
space shall include a dressing area, shower, and storage for contaminated
and fresh clothing, and shall be sized to accommodate the intended emergency
use.
Section 18.2. Shielding. The decontamination
space enclosure shall pro vide fallout radiation shielding for adjoining
hospital fallout shelter spaces, with a minimum protection level of PF 100.
Communications
Section 19.0. Radio. The hospital fallout shelter
space shall be equipped with a radio transmitter, battery-operated receivers,
and an installed antenna to permit contact between the hospital control center
and civil defense authorities during emergency periods.
Section 19.1. Telephone. The hospital fallout
shelter space shall be provided with regular telephone service for use when
telephone systems are in operation during emergency periods.
Section 19.2. Intercommunications. Provision
shall be made for communications to and from the hospital control center
and the hospital fallout shelter during emergency periods by at least two
of the following methods: telephone, intercom, selective channel public address
system, or messenger.
Section 19.3. EMP Protection. Electromagnetic
pulse (EMP) protection shall be provided for communications equipment and
communications emergency electric generator. EMP protection shall conform
to standards contained in publication TR-61-B, EMP
Protective Systems, July 1976 edition, available from the Federal
Emergency Management Agency.
Supplies and Storage
Section 20.0. General. Essential shelter supplies
shall be stored within the hospital fallout shelter space when feasible,
or within easy access of those spaces. As a minimum, space for food, water,
radiation detection equipment, sanitary kits, bunks, and other necessary
furnishings and supplies shall be considered in determining the amount of
storage space to be provided.
Section 20.1. Food Storage. A supply of canned food of types appropriate
to patient care and hospital staff shall be stored for use during a period
of emergency confinement of up to 2 weeks. The capacity of the general hospital
food lockers and normal food storage areas may be considered in meeting this
requirement.
Section 20.2. Other Storage. Consideration shall
be given to space requirements for storage of small items such as radiation
detection equipment, sanitary kits, hand basins, and chemical toilets.
Section 20.3. Security. Storage areas for emergency
supplies shall provide security from pilfering and protection from moisture
and other potentially damaging environmental conditions. When crawl spaces
are used for storage of supplies, items shall not be placed directly on the
earth.
Section 20.4. Sleeping Facilities. Bunks or
cots should be included in the design of a dual-use hospital fallout shelter.
Storage of these may be outside the shelter area prior to their placement
within the hospital fallout shelter space during emergency periods.
COMMENTARY
Fallout shelters are for the purpose of protecting people from the hazards
of fallout radiation, which is one of the effects of nuclear explosions.
The basic consideration in the fallout shelter concept is that protection
from fallout radiation is essential to the life and health of people for
a short period of time immediately after the radioactive fallout contaminates
a region. The limited time during which protection is necessary from the
fallout radiation ranges from a few days to approximately 2 weeks, depending
upon the intensity of the radiation hazard.
Because there is need for immediate protection from the fallout radiation,
fallout shelters are emergency-use facilities. Their fundamental requirements
are that they provide shielding from the radiation hazard, that essential
life-support systems are present, and that they are immediately available.
The fallout shelter standards given in this booklet are minimum standards
intended to meet the above-stated requirements. The standards have been developed
by the Federal Emergency Management Agency and its predecessor agencies,
and they result from extensive theoretical and applied research. Fallout
shelters which meet these minimum standards will be relatively austere living
environments, but the essential purpose of sustaining life and health of
the protected populations will be preserved.
THE RADIATION HAZARD
Nuclear radiation has the ominous characteristic of destroying living cells
of all types. This characteristic has both good and bad aspects. One beneficial
aspect of radiation is that it can be used in controlled situations for the
treatment of cancer. However, in uncontrolled situations and in large amounts,
radiation also will cause serious impairment of health, or death.
Fallout radiation resulting from nuclear explosions will vary in amount and
intensity from location to location due to a variety of conditions which
affect its physical behavior. Unfortunately, most of the influencing conditions
are not predictable, so generalizations must be drawn from research data,
and assumptions must be made regarding distribution patterns and intensities
of the radiation for use in planning to mitigate its effects. The standards
presented herein are based upon a number of generalizations and assumptions
about the fallout radiation hazard.
Radiation effects upon the health of humans will not be immediate for the
radiation intensities that will occur in most fallout situations. Initial
signs of radiation sickness among exposed populations may appear in hours,
days, or weeks, depending upon the dosage received.
Humans also have different tolerance levels for radiation. A healthy adult
will be affected less than a child or infirm person when exposed to the same
radiation dose. Further, the period of time during which a person is exposed
to radiation has an influence upon the damaging effects. A radiation dose
received across many months or years will be less hazardous than the same
dose received during a shorter period of several days.
Another characteristic of nuclear radiation is that the radiation emissions
decrease with time. This is known as radiation decay. The rate of decay will
vary with the type of radioactive isotope. The characteristic isotopes found
in fallout radiation have a decay rate which can be approximated by the so-called
seven-ten rule. According to this rule, radiation decay will bring about
a reduction in radiation emissions to a level of one-tenth the earlier value
with every seven-fold increase in time. This means that a radiation emission
rate of 1,000 Roentgens (R) per hour measured at a time soon after a nuclear
detonation will decay to an emission rate of 100 R per hour at a time 7 hours
after detonation, and to a further reduction of 10 R per hour at a time 49
hours after detonation.
The significance of this radiation decay characteristic to fallout shelter
planning is that protection from the fallout radiation needs to be provided
for only a limited time. The normal decay process will reduce the radiation
dosage to a tolerable level within a period ranging from a few days to
approximately 2 weeks.
Fallout shelters cannot fully eliminate the radiation dosage. This is not
possible except in only a few situations where massive barriers exist. However,
fallout shelters can reduce the intensity and quantity of radiation reaching
the occupants to levels and dosages that are tolerable. Reduction is achieved
principally with heavy walls and roofs (barriers) placed between the sheltered
population and the fallout radiation source field. The needed construction
mass in walls and roofs already is present in many buildings.
The amount of radiation entering a sheltered space through barriers will
vary as the mass of the barriers varies. More massive barriers mean that
less radiation will penetrate into the shelter space.
The degree of radiation shielding provided by a fallout shelter is measured
in terms of its protection factor. Quite simply, a protection factor for
a shelter is the ratio of the amount of radiation that would be received
at an unshielded location compared to the amount of radiation that would
be received at the same location with the protective barriers present. Thus,
a protection factor of 40 (written as PF 40) for a specific location in a
shelter means that location will receive only 1/40th of the amount of radiation
that would be received in the same location with the barriers removed.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency has determined that a protection
factor of 40 will provide adequate protection for public fallout shelters.
For PF 40 protection, only 2 1/2 percent of the open-field radiation will
reach the shelter location for which the PF was calculated.
FALLOUT SHELTERS
There are a variety of situations for which fallout shelters are needed.
One such situation is the protection of the general population during that
time period when the fallout radiation is hazardous to life. In general,
public fallout shelters have the function only of providing protection from
nuclear fallout radiation. However, there are some activities in our society
which must be accommodated even during periods of extreme hazards. Health-care
service is one such activity. There are other activities which need to be
established and maintained during emergency periods, such as mobilization
of emergency manpower and equipment resources and coordination of essential
government functions. Facilities in which these emergency governmental services
are managed are called Emergency Operating Centers.
Higher protection factor levels and shelter environments of higher quality
are established for Emergency Operating Centers and hospitals than for public
fallout shelters, in order to give added assurance that the emergency staffs
can perform their work effectively and efficiently. The Federal Emergency
Management Agency recommends that these types of emergency service facilities
have a protection level of PF 100 or better.
PUBLIC FALLOUT SHELTERS
Public fallout shelters are facilities providing protection from fallout
radiation which are intended for use by the general public during emergency
periods. These do not include private fallout shelters in residences and
other buildings which are not intended to be available to the general public,
although the standards are the same for both.
Basic Considerations
Public fallout shelters have but one purpose--to provide the minimum necessary
protection from fallout radiation in a minimum life-sustaining environment.
The minimum protection level for public fallout shelters is PF 40. The minimum
life-sustaining environment consists of a supply of drinking water, tolerable
temperature and humidity (these are combined in a human comfort factor called
effective temperature), sanitary facilities, adequate fresh air, and low-level
lighting if natural light is not available in the shelter. These are the
basic elements covered in the standard for public fallout shelters.
The standard for public fallout shelters includes a few other items which
relate to a general concern for the public safety and welfare, such as access
and egress, fire safety, and proximity of hazardous materials or systems.
These considerations are addressed in all building codes. They are included
in the standard for public fallout shelters, not because they are essential
to the purpose of protecting occupants from fallout radiation or to sustaining
life, but because prudent design for the public safety requires their
consideration. In addition, the standard includes consideration of fallout
shelter supplies and their storage. These are not required for a public fallout
shelter, but their presence may be desirable in otherwise austere living
conditions.
Dual Use
Public fallout shelters need not be separate, single-use facilities. Indeed,
all buildings offer some degree of fallout protection; although some buildings
provide better protection than others, and not all have protection factors
high enough to qualify as public fallout shelters. This characteristic of
inherent radiation shielding in all buildings, with PF 40 or better shielding
in some, makes it possible to designate either all or parts of some buildings
as public fallout shelters. The buildings or spaces therein which may be
designated as public fallout shelters typically have an everyday use, and
in that sense they are called dual-purpose shelters. Most public fallout
shelters are of this type.
Identifying The Shelter
Since it often is the case that only part of a building will provide protection
of PF 40 or better, the suitable shelter space must be identified for users,
including its boundaries and limits. Diagrams of floor plans are one way
to do this; trained shelter managers offer another way. A Minimum Standard
As is the case with most building standards, minimum criteria which meet
the intended objectives are given in the standard for public fallout shelters.
The principal reason is to keep the cost for meeting the standard to the
lowest possible level and yet meet the desired objectives. Accordingly, there
should be no hesitation to exceed the standard for public fallout shelters,
provided that the particular building situation and economics permit.
Radiation Shielding
As indicated in the description of the radiation hazard above, the fundamental
objective of a fallout shelter is that it provide protection from fallout
radiation for occupants. Suitable radiation shielding is the most important
feature that any shelter offers and should be given priority attention in
establishing any fallout shelter.
Higher protection factor values, if they can be achieved with little or no
extra effort, are especially worthy of consideration. The advantages of
minimizing the amount of radiation that a person receives are indicated in
the preceding discussion of radiation effects upon living tissue. The ultimate
measure of the amount of radiation received, of course, is the protection
factor. If protection factors greater than PF 40 can be achieved, they certainly
should be provided.
Temperature
The maximum effective temperature value for public fallout shelters is higher
than would be permitted in spaces used daily. The effective temperature value
of 82°F (28°C) for public fallout shelters is an upper limit of
tolerance for sedentary people, and should not be exceeded. Fully occupied
fallout shelters in warm, humid climates are especially likely to produce
effective temperatures in excess of the upper limit value unless large air-flow
volumes are provided.
Because heat buildup occurs in a relatively closed fallout shelter at full
or nearly full occupancy, a minimum dry-bulb temperature of 50°F
(10°C) normally can be maintained without adding heat to the space.
Dry-bulb temperatures that are too high will be the usual situation rather
than temperatures that are too low for comfort.
Ventilation
Proper ventilation of fallout shelters is, perhaps, the second most important
consideration. Fresh air--that is, oxygen--is essential to sustain life.
Ordinarily, this is not a great concern for buildings which are designed
for daily use. We take for granted that a fresh air supply is introduced
into building spaces through normal ventilation, which may be either natural
air flow or mechanically driven airflow.
Fallout shelters present new ventilation problems. First, the very purpose
of a fallout shelter usually results in it being a relatively closed space,
possibly a basement or an interior space. Natural ventilation is restricted
in such circumstances, and mechanical (forced) ventilation cannot be relied
upon, because electric power cannot be assured to remain available during
and after a period of nuclear attack. Second, when a fallout shelter is fully
occupied up to its limit, which is one person in every 10 square feet of
floor area, the consumption of oxygen, discharge of carbon dioxide, buildup
of unpleasant odors, and heat and moisture buildup from occupants combine
to create nearly intolerable conditions in spaces which have poor or no
ventilation.
For these reasons, the ventilation system of a fallout shelter must be carefully
checked. If natural ventilation is to be used, then the air-flow volume must
be sufficient to meet the health and comfort conditions as prescribed in
publication TR-20 (Volume 3), Shelter
Environmental Support Systems, Appendix C, "Ventilation Requirements
for Fallout Shelters," May 1978 edition, available from the Federal Emergency
Management Agency. If deficiencies are found, then either the shelter occupancy
must be reduced, or forced ventilation must be provided. If forced ventilation
is to be used, then a reliable power supply to the fans must be assured to
maintain the required air-flow volume.
Potable Water
A supply of drinking water is the only other feature of public fallout shelters
which is essential to sustain life for periods longer than just a few days.
Accordingly, provision must be made for the needed water. 3.5 gallons of
potable water per shelter occupant are to be provided. This amount is based
upon a 14-day shelter stay-time, or one quart per day, and is for drinking
purposes only. No other uses are included in the base amount. If other uses
of water are expected in the fallout shelter, such as for sanitary purposes,
then the storage capacity must be increased.
There are several ways in which the required drinking water can be provided
in a fallout shelter. The one way not to be counted upon is the public water
main. Public water supply systems are likely to be disrupted during a period
of nuclear attack--either due to power failure which could render pumping
stations inoperative or due to breakage of the water lines at some remote
point. This means that the emergency water supply must be at or near the
fallout shelter--either storage tank(s) or a well at the site. Water can
be stored either in permanently installed tanks or in individual containers.
Occasionally, it will be possible to obtain the required water from that
trapped in building lines. In such cases, a suitably located outlet valve
will be needed to withdraw the water.
HOSPITAL FALLOUT SHELTERS
Hospital fallout shelters are among that class of protected facilities which
also have an emergency operational purpose. Hospitals must prepare to provide
radiation protection for a population whose health most likely is poor and
who therefore have a lower tolerance level for radiation exposure and for
adverse environmental conditions. Hospitals also must provide a protected
work space for medical and health-care staff who serve the patients and who
may be called upon to give medical treatment to new patients. For these reasons,
the fallout shelter standard for hospitals is more restrictive (a higher
standard) than is the standard for public fallout shelters.
Hospital fallout shelters, like public fallout shelters, are less than optimum
facilities. Their essential purpose is to accommodate health-care services
during extremely adverse conditions. The standard is lower than ordinarily
is applied to medical facilities. However, to permit minimum health-care
services without endangering the lives of patients or medical staff, the
standard for fallout shelters in hospitals is more than the minimum
life-sustaining standard that is acceptable for public fallout shelters.
Priorities in the importance of features also exist for hospital fallout
shelters. These are indicated in subsequent paragraphs.
Radiation Shielding
The fundamental objective of a hospital fallout shelter is that it provide
protection from fallout radiation for both patients and patient-care staff.
An additional objective is that protection also be provided in essential
medical treatment and surgical facilities which must continue to function
even in the most adverse conditions. It may be that temporary facilities
will need to be established in the hospital in order to maintain these services
in a protected environment during a fallout radiation emergency. Temporary
facilities for bed patients also may be needed in protected locations away
from normal service wards.
The standard for fallout shelters in hospitals is not specific about how
facilities used daily are to be utilized in emergency situations. This is
a matter to be decided by each hospital administrator after assessing the
radiation shielding potential of each hospital area and the medical services
organization of the hospital. However, suitable fallout radiation protection
is the primary consideration for hospital fallout shelters, as is the case
for public fallout shelters. All other considerations must give way to this
basic requirement.
A Minimum Standard
The standard provides minimum criteria for hospital fallout shelters. These
criteria cover patient areas, medical treatment spaces, surgical facilities,
staff spaces, and support facilities. Other spaces in the hospital which
may be used as public fallout shelter areas are not covered in the standard.
Such facilities should meet the standard for public fallout shelters.
The standard for fallout shelters in hospitals is nonspecific with respect
to the number and size of areas to be allocated to each of the various
patient-care, medical, and surgical functions. These functions are different
for nearly every hospital, and the particular needs for each hospital are
best determined by its administrator. However, minimum space requirements
are prescribed for patientcare shelter areas.
There should be no hesitation on the part of hospital planners to exceed
the standard for hospital fallout shelters, provided that the particular
building situation and economics permit. Protection factor values higher
than the minimum PF 100 are worthy of consideration if they can be achieved
with little or no extra effort.
Ventilation
Ventilation of the hospital fallout shelter area is among several additional
considerations, the importance of which is exceeded only by the need for
suitable radiation shielding. An adequate supply of fresh air, an acceptable
effective temperature level, a reasonably comfortable dry-bulb temperature
level, and control of air circulation to avoid transfer of contamination
are among the more important health and comfort factors affected by ventilation
of the hospital fallout shelter space.
Health and comfort needs both for an active staff and for inactive patients
must be met by the ventilation system. Since active persons (medical staff)
and inactive persons (bed patients) have different temperature and humidity
comfort levels, ventilation systems in hospitals require more precise control
than do ventilation systems in public fallout shelters. Also, the ranges
of tolerable fluctuation of fresh air supply, temperature, and humidity are
narrower for hospital fallout shelters. Accordingly, the ventilation standard
for hospital fallout shelters is more restrictive.
Fresh air supply requirements are greater for hospitals than for other types
of shelters. This is to accommodate patients whose need for oxygen may be
greater than the needs of healthy persons, and hospital staff whose activities
may result in greater oxygen consumption than sedentary occupants of a public
fallout shelter. The fresh air supply for hospital fallout shelters therefore
is more than twice that required for public fallout shelters.
Air-conditioning may be required in some hospital fallout shelters in order
to maintain a tolerable effective temperature in a relatively closed space,
especially for those shelters in warm, humid climates. And, heating may be
required in some northern climates in order to maintain temperature levels
sufficient for bed patients.
Lighting
Lighting is another essential need for most medical services, including those
rendered in emergency situations in a hospital fallout shelter. Unlike public
fallout shelters, hospital fallout shelters must include emergency lighting
at intensity levels commensurate with the critical nature of the medical
services performed in a particular space or area. This lighting must be connected
to an emergency generator to assure that failure of the public power system
will not disrupt medical treatments in process or life-support systems which
most likely are electrically operated. In addition, battery-operated lights
should be placed in critical areas of the hospital fallout shelter to provide
backup lighting.
Emergency Power
The need at all times for ventilation, lighting, powering of medical equipment,
and, possibly, air-conditioning means that hospital fallout shelters must
have emergency electrical power available. Most hospitals already have emergency
generators which provide electrical power for essential medical facilities
during periods of normal power outages that occasionally occur. Emergency
power for the hospital fallout shelter also is essential.
Normal power outages usually are of short duration compared with the possible
2-week period that a hospital fallout shelter could be occupied. As a result,
hospital equipment and building systems connected to the emergency generator
system designed for normal power outages often will be less extensive than
may be needed for the hospital fallout shelter, it may be necessary to increase
the size of the emergency power system or to supplement it with additional
equipment in order to provide sufficient power to the fallout shelter to
carry the additional power loads that may not be included in the normal emergency
generator installation.
Also, switching and other controls may need to be installed to permit shutdown
of systems in the hospital not necessary to the fallout shelter functions,
or to direct the emergency power into the hospital fallout shelter area and
to equipment essential in the fallout shelter.
Sanitation
Sanitation is another aspect of hospitals which requires special attention
in fallout shelter areas. Provision must be made for collection and disposal
of garbage, trash, and human waste in a way to preserve necessary sanitary
conditions in the hospital fallout shelter.
If a water supply is available during emergency periods when the fallout
shelter may be occupied, then disposal of garbage and human waste can be
done relatively easily by normal methods; that is, disposals and standard
toilets. If extra water is not expected to be available during emergency
periods, then alternative methods of disposal must be employed, such as chemical
toilets for human waste and closed containers for garbage and trash.
Communications
Communications, both within the hospital fallout shelter space and externally,
are another special need for hospital fallout shelters. Among its several
roles during and after a nuclear attack, a hospital may be called upon to
render medical services to casualty cases; that is, to persons other than
its own patients. Such medical services may need to be rendered within the
hospital or possibly at some remote location. Coordination of these services,
either within the hospital or at other locations, will be highly desirable,
both for reasons of efficiency and for allocation of medical resources.
The local civil defense Emergency Operating Center will be the source of
casualty information during a nuclear emergency. Thus, communications with
that local operations center is desirable.
Communications for the hospital can be handled most effectively through a
hospital control center from which information involving medical services
can be assessed in terms of required actions, and from which information
can be passed on to the medical staff within the hospital fallout shelter
by various communications methods. Because of the importance of effective
communications during emergency periods, alternative systems are to be provided
for backup communications.
Supplies and Storage
Essential medical, reserve food, and other supplies will be needed in every
hospital fallout shelter. Some of these supplies may be moved into the hospital
fallout shelter area at the time of the emergency, such as food from hospital
kitchens, medical equipment and supplies, linen, and beds. Other supplies,
such as radiation detection equipment, basic or reserve food items, and,
possibly, water may require permanent storage in the hospital fallout shelter
area.
It is desirable that the storage of supplies be convenient for periodic checking
or replacement. If the storage areas are inconvenient, then periodic checking
may be neglected, with the result that the stored items may not be useable
or operable when needed.
A Comprehensive Standard
It should be evident that some elements of the standard for fallout shelters
in hospitals involve building construction and mechanical systems which are
integral to the building; whereas others involve facilities utilization which
are matters of management. These are not always differentiated in the standard.
Rather, all features of an operational hospital fallout shelter are treated.
How each particular element of the standard is met is left to the judgement
of each hospital administrator.
REFERENCES
| 1. |
Building Protection
From Nuclear Radiation, TR-39, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency,
Washington, D.C.; December 1977. |
| 2. |
Effects of Nuclear
Weapons, The. Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan, Editors, U.S.
Department of Defense and U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.; 1977
(revised edition). |
| 3. |
EMP Protective
Systems, TR-61 -B, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Washington,
D.C.; July 1976. |
| 4. |
Guidance for
Development of An Emergency Fallout Shelter Stocking Plan, CPG 1-19,
Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Washington, D.C.; July 1978. |
| 5. |
Handbook of
Fundamentals, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., New York, N.Y.; 1977 edition. |
| 6. |
Protective
Construction, TR-39, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Washington,
D.C.; June 1978. |
| 7. |
Radiological
Defense Preparedness, CPG 2-6.1, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency,
Washington, D.C.; May 1978. |
| 8. |
Shelter Design
and Analysis--Fallout Radiation Shielding, TR-20 (Volume 1), Defense
Civil Preparedness Agency, Washington, D.C.; June 1976. |
| 9. |
Shelter
Environmental Support Systems, TR-20 (Volume 3), Defense Civil
Preparedness Agency, Washington, D.C.; May 1978. |
| 10. |
Technical
Requirements for Fallout Shelters in Hospitals, Technical Memorandum
77-1, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Washington, D.C.; May 1977. |
Prepared By
DELBERT B. WARD, AlA
DISTRIBUTION
Regions, Staff college
State and Local CD Directors
Instructors Qualified in Fallout Shelter Analysis
Engineering Libraries
NATO CD Directors
From: dawej@pacbell.net (david-john
burrowes)
This manual was scanned in and OCR'ed by David-John, from an original purchased
at a Library used book sale, and thus may contain the kinds of errors produced
by that process. I tried to get the formatting roughly the same as the original
document, but it isn't completely identical. Please accept our apologies
for any misprints or errors.
Updated May 2001 - © 2001 By Richard A. Fleetwood |
and
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